Post-Fukushima Nuclear Wastewater Discharge: Between Science and Misinformation, Ordinary People Question Everything

Note: Due to concerns about journalists' safety, this story's reporters are not using their official names.

该报道最初以中文发表在《端传媒》上。要阅读中文报道,请点击此处

This report was originally posted in Chinese on Initium Media. To read the story in Chinese, click here.

It's all about survival instincts.

Xiaofei is a fan of Japanese skincare products. She buys every beauty product after extensive research on Xiaohongshu (a popular social media app in China) — from Shiseido's Ultimune serum to Freeplus toner.  However, she now feels anxious that these products might be damaging her skin.

In August 2023, when Japan announced the release of treated nuclear wastewater from Fukushima, a wave of panic buying of "uncontaminated" skincare products swept across Taobao, a popular ecommerce site in China. Xiaofei missed out on the frenzy. Though she continued purchasing Japanese skincare products afterward, she now does so with caution, cutting her daily usage to a quarter of what it once was. "I'm using them slowly to see if they will ruin my skin," she says.

Xiaofei, a physics major university student from a third-tier city in northwestern China, had been closely following the news about Fukushima water discharge on Weibo (a social media app in China similar to Twitter) even before the first round of release. Initially, her scientific training led her to trust the safety standards for the treated wastewater. However, as she encountered more posts condemning Japan, she began to question the credibility and authority of the scientific institutions involved.

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Xiaofei is not alone in her concerns. Many people find that the scientific information available on the Fukushima water discharge is overwhelming and difficult to fully grasp. Furthermore, whether they are inside or outside the information firewall, they struggle to sift through social media content and form well-informed opinions.

Meanwhile on the internet, some sow panic, and others exploit the situation for clicks.

The Geiger Counter

To further assess her skincare products, Xiaofei watched several safety test videos of Japanese brands on TikTok. One video, posted by @小趙的歡樂日常 (Xiaozhao’s Happy Daily), featured a test comparing the radiation levels of Curel cream, made in Japan, with those of Dabao, a "domestic" Chinese brand acquired by Johnson & Johnson in 2008. The blogger purchased four boxes of Curel and used a Geiger counter to conduct the tests.

The tests were carried out in the living room and bedroom respectively, with the products unopened. To "avoid interference between the two skincare products," the blogger "carefully" closed the door. When the Geiger counter was placed near the Curel cream, it displayed a reading of 0.24 μSv (microsieverts). However, when placed near the Dabao cream, the reading stayed at 0.

Seeing these two numbers, Xiaofei was terrified.

Although Xiaofei is a science student, she doesn’t fully understand how a Geiger counter works. She found the video credible because "it was shot in one take, without any editing." "I know that 0.24 might still be within the safe standard, but if I can choose 0, I’ll choose 0," she explained. She proposed a stricter "thousand-fold lower" standard: "Given my expectations of Japan as a developed country, it should be capable of achieving radiation levels a thousand times lower." If this were the case, Xiaofei believes, there should be no difference between the readings of Curel and the "domestic" Dabao.

However, she then reconsidered: "The video didn’t account for the background radiation in the air." She concluded, "If I have time, I'll redo the experiment myself and then decide whether to throw away my skincare products."

In fact, Geiger counters are primarily designed to detect radioactive particles in the air and are commonly used for nuclear radiation detection in medical, industrial, and construction settings. They are not suitable for testing food or cosmetics. Scientifically, the background radiation level in an average person’s daily life ranges from 1 to 3 millisieverts. The video’s test unit was in microsieverts, equivalent to just 0.00024 millisieverts—well below Xiaofei's "thousand-fold lower" standard.

However, neither Xiaofei nor the nearly 23,000 commenters on the video seemed to notice the difference between "micro" and "milli" units. Before Japan's water discharge, the daily search volume for Geiger counters on Taobao was around 1,000 to 2,000. However, following the discharge, these devices became best-sellers. On the day of the water release, Taobao search volumes skyrocketed to over 270,000, with sales reaching 1.3 million yuan.

Some vendors have added keywords like "seafood," "imported food," "nuclear wastewater," and "cosmetic testing" to their product descriptions to boost search visibility. 雷格森五金專營店 (Reger Hardware Specialty Store), the fourth best-selling Geiger counter retailer on Taobao, featured the slogan "Eat seafood without worries" on its homepage. To avoid "false advertising," the store only showcased examples of air radiation measurements taken near Chernobyl and Fukushima on its product details page.

Three days after the water discharge, China Central Television (CCTV) interviewed energy experts to educate the public: "When it comes to radiation measurement, simply having a testing device is not enough. Without professional knowledge, it's difficult for ordinary people to detect anything." The experts also emphasized, "The government is monitoring the discharge of nuclear wastewater. We hope the public can trust the government and avoid excessive concern."

However, much like the water discharge itself, this message was not trusted by the majority. 

The customer service of "Reger Hardware Specialty Store" responded that the product mentioned in the news was different from the model sold in their store. The customer service representative emphasized, "You get what you pay for." The store’s products "have the ability to detect," with "only differences in accuracy."

Shortly after the water discharge, the Weibo influencer @包容萬物恆河水 (All-encompassing Ganges Water), whom Xiaofei follows, began regularly posting condemnations of Japan. "I've been following him for years. You could call him a military blogger, but I see him more as a science communicator," Xiaofei says. She trusts this blogger: "He knows many languages, and every point he makes is backed by screenshots. No one else is as thorough and well-reasoned as he is."

Xiaofei’s English level does not allow her to read the official reports from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) directly. Meanwhile, @All-encompassing Ganges Water has focused his criticism on the IAEA's safety reports. The blogger interprets the typical disclaimer in these publications as evidence that "the IAEA doesn't trust its own analysis" and claims that the IAEA's citation of Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)'s real-time monitoring data indicates "they never conducted on-site monitoring."

Xiaofei finds these analyses "well-documented" and, as a result, opposes Japan's water discharge.

The Challenge of Science Communication

On the day of the nuclear wastewater release, nuclear physicist Li Jianmang, who was abroad at the time, quickly took action. A graduate of the first cohort of the Special Class for the Gifted Young at the University of Science and Technology of China in the 1970s, Li was once celebrated as a "prodigy" in China. He spent eight years working at the China Institute of Atomic Energy before relocating to the Netherlands, where he joined the Energy Research Center and eventually settled. Li frequently shares his commentary on Chinese political affairs on platforms like Twitter. His readers mentioned that people around him were extremely anxious about the nuclear wastewater release and "hoped I could objectively assess the severity of the situation." In response, he wrote an impromptu science article and posted screenshots of it on Weibo.

The article examined the safety of Japan's nuclear wastewater discharge from five angles: the classification of cooling water, the discharge method, the tritium release volume, the discharge density, and the oversight mechanisms. To Li's surprise, the article attracted two million views within just three hours, "it's going viral on Weibo." However, after receiving 12,000 likes, the post was deleted by the platform, and his account was permanently banned.

For Li, however, being "banned" was nothing new: "I've had over 350 accounts banned on Weibo." On one occasion, his account was shut down after he exposed vote manipulation by the Global Times in a poll supporting Mao Zedong. "In the past, I could always come back with a new account," he said. However, after the Fukushima incident, he discovered that he could no longer create new accounts. "I try to stay within the allowed boundaries, avoiding overstepping," he explained. He doesn’t see himself as intentionally opposing the Chinese authorities, but he has yet to figure out where the "red line" is. Now, he feels that the channels for speaking out in mainland China are "becoming fewer and fewer."

A blogger compared 16 years of emission data from China’s Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant with the planned discharges from Fukushima, revealing that the tritium concentration from Qinshan Phase III in Zhejiang Province has consistently been more than double that of Fukushima. The article did not question the safety of China's emissions but sought to show that Fukushima's discharge plan was not as dangerous as it was being portrayed online. However, after being published on Xiaohongshu, the article was promptly banned permanently by the platform.

A week after the water release, nearly all articles on WeChat (a Chinese instant messaging and social media app) attempting to explain the actual risks of Japan’s nuclear wastewater had been deleted. Posting data on China’s nuclear wastewater emissions on WeChat resulted in a seven-day ban for the user. On Zhihu (a Chinese question-and-answer platform like Quora), all responses attempting to explain China's tritium discharge levels were similarly removed.

Mr. Tian, a high school physics teacher from Dongying, Shandong Province, noticed the online frenzy of people hoarding salt and rushing to buy Geiger counters. With his expertise, Mr. Tian knew that Geiger counters are ineffective for measuring radiation in fish: "The detection range is too small; they won’t pick up anything." However, he is reluctant to voice his opinions online. In the past, when he tried to explain that "hoarding masks was unnecessary," he received mixed reactions—some people believed him, while others insulted him. "If I argued back, the science communication would turn into a fight, and a good deed would become something negative." Since then, Mr. Tian has decided to stay silent and refrain from commenting, "As an ordinary person, I cannot mentally afford to support science."

In fact, due to the deteriorating online environment, many science bloggers he used to follow have stopped posting on Chinese platforms and have shifted to YouTube. A notable example is the science media outlet "Paperclip," known for its explanatory videos on topics like the challenges of earthquake prediction and survival tactics during a stampede. However, in 2020, Paperclip faced widespread criticism when a map of China used in one of its videos was accused of "omitting Taiwan" because the color of the Taiwan region closely matched the background of the video. Despite making corrections, the outlet was later accused of having staff members who posted "anti-China comments" on overseas social media, leading to a complete ban.

"Most of his science content was excellent, but when one or two issues arose, people seized on them," Mr. Tian noted, adding that political sensitivity is essential for science bloggers in China. "If a blogger lacks sensitivity, you have reason to suspect they might be attempting to instill harmful ideas in you."

Nowadays, most science bloggers choose to avoid sensitive topics. The top three bloggers in the science section on Bilibili focus on safer subjects: "One Math," who specializes in high school mathematics; "Infinite Xiaoliang’s Daily Science," who covers knowledge about plants and animals; and "Tu Ba Ge," who shares healthy lifestyle habits. Other knowledge-based bloggers are similarly cautious; for instance, "Little Q Is Not a Guide Dog" only translates United Nations meetings without offering any commentary, while geopolitics bloggers primarily cover the Middle East and North America, carefully steering clear of discussions about China. Li Jianmang believes that science misinformation is rampant on Chinese social media, and the power of online marketing hype should not be underestimated. "They understand the mindset of online users, fabricate eye-catching topics, and take advantage of the situation to make money," he said.

Social media platforms bear the responsibility of managing the red line for "Fukushima nuclear wastewater." Shelly, who previously worked in risk management for a short video platform, explained, "Regarding the Fukushima incident, platforms monitor event outbreaks by tracking keywords, accounts, etc."

Take iodized salt, for example. If content explaining everyday knowledge about iodized salt passes review, it can be displayed as usual. However, if the platform suspects a video might contain misinformation but it passes review anyway, and if the content isn’t considered particularly important or sensitive, the video will be flagged with a warning that says, "content may be risky."

When the platform notices certain types of posts gaining traction, such as those related to the Japanese tsunami, it will implement a new alert and monitoring system. The platform will reassess whether previous guidelines were adequate and will also need to monitor for misinformation. "Misinformation and risky content related to Japan, tsunamis, or consumer goods require a renewed discussion of control measures," Shelly added.

But what exactly qualifies as misinformation? Fukushima nuclear wastewater involves not only specialized knowledge but also news and politics. Shelly believes that news doesn’t have a single objective answer or conclusion; it’s more about expressing viewpoints. Because news involves public interest, it can spark widespread discussion, which is very different from managing knowledge-based content.

Due to the sensitivity of such topics, the platform’s handling of politically related content is kept confidential. Each case requires specific handling, which might involve distinguishing between terms, such as "nuclear wastewater" versus "nuclear contaminated water," to align with particular stances. The platform also carefully manages the search bar to prevent keywords that yield no results from being remembered by the algorithm and subsequently recommended to other users. Shelly noted, "The news environment in China and abroad is completely different; there is a long and complex history behind this."

Shelly believes the platform is actively fulfilling its social responsibility to ensure an open space free of misinformation. "A large portion of our traffic and budget is dedicated to supporting domain experts, allowing them to speak out and increase the visibility of higher-quality, more objective content." She feels that many people are working hard toward this goal. "It’s a great product."

Confusion in Narratives Inside and Outside the Great Firewall

In China, the official stance has consistently opposed Japan’s discharge of nuclear-contaminated water. The distinction between "nuclear wastewater" (核廢水) and "nuclear contaminated water" (核污水) is significant: The former suggests the discharge is harmless, while the latter implies pollution. In the English-speaking world, the term "wastewater" is commonly used, whereas China often refers to it as "contaminated water."

However, inconsistencies in narrative tone, attention to detail, and accuracy of information exist across different levels of administration.

On November 17, 2023, during a meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida in San Francisco, Chinese President Xi Jinping emphasized the importance of "peace," "friendship," and "cooperation," stating that both sides should address the Fukushima wastewater issue constructively through consultation and negotiation. In contrast, around the same time, Foreign Ministry spokesperson Wang Wenbin, responding to questions from domestic and foreign journalists, repeatedly criticized Japan during his regular press conferences, calling it "extremely selfish," "arrogant," and "irresponsible," accusing Japan of "prioritizing power over international reaction," "treating the Pacific Ocean as a sewer," and "repaying countries that assisted Japan with ingratitude."

The Communist Youth League, at both central and local levels, amplified these press conference videos and actively spread misinformation, such as the false claim that Japan spent 70 billion yen to suppress negative information about nuclear contaminated water. This further fueled domestic outrage over the Fukushima discharge, with political propaganda and rumors proliferating on Weibo. Chinese news reports on Japan's discharge details frequently topped trending topics, with some commentary suggesting the discharge might have a greater impact on the United States, asserting that "China has won again." Others highlighted nuclear safety issues not only in Japan but also in the U.K. and the U.S., while conveniently omitting any mention of China. Some military bloggers even claimed that the U.S. was shielding Japan and that Japan was bribing Western media to frame China.

On WeChat, articles with top views often focus on China-Japan relations, interpreting Japan’s appointment of a hardline foreign minister as a signal of strength directed at China or analyzing how Japan’s alliance with G7 countries could pressure China. Additionally, some articles noted that the volume of seafood imported from Japan to Hong Kong had reached a record high, implying a stance contrary to that of the Chinese government.

Bloggers in niche areas have also jumped on the bandwagon. A food blogger living in Japan, known as "Oilhead with a Side Part" on TikTok, discovered a sign at a Tokyo izakaya that read, "To Chinese customers: All ingredients here are from Fukushima," and promptly reported it to the Japanese police. On Xiaohongshu, beauty bloggers recommended domestic alternatives to Japanese products, condemning those who continued selling Japanese skincare products during the "Double 11" shopping festival as "lacking conscience." Nationalistic backlash quickly followed, with videos of Chinese youths harassing Japanese ramen shops being widely shared as humor. During Japanese earthquakes, comments like "I hope Mount Fuji erupts soon" or "I hope Japanese get hurt" were celebrated as catchphrases.

If you type "nuclear wastewater" into WeChat’s search bar, the system automatically redirects the top search results to "nuclear contaminated water."

However, information gaps are not limited to within China’s firewall; outside the firewall, the overwhelming flood of information can be just as disorienting.

The most authoritative scientific explanations regarding the water discharge come from the IAEA. Since April 2021, the IAEA has provided Japan with safety and technical assistance for its Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), conducting multiple on-site reviews and independent sample analyses. A month before the discharge, the IAEA published a comprehensive 140-page report on the safety review of the treated water from the Fukushima nuclear power plant. Written entirely in English and filled with technical terms, the report requires a certain level of knowledge and education to fully comprehend. As a result, these reports garnered only a few hundred retweets on X.

Moreover, not all countries trust the IAEA or the Japanese government. The governments of China and Russia, along with the Democratic Party of Korea (South Korea’s opposition party), have publicly opposed the water discharge and taken countermeasures, such as diplomatic lobbying and imposing import restrictions on seafood originating from Japan.

Chinese diplomatic institutions and various media outlets, using official accounts, “civilian” accounts, and influencers, have also been actively voicing their opinions on foreign social media platforms, attempting to amplify their influence on the international stage. One such "opportunity" arose in Fiji. Fiji, an island nation in the South Pacific, is a signatory to the 1986 South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone Treaty, which obligates it to prevent any country from dumping radioactive waste in the nuclear-free zone.

The day after Japan’s first water discharge, hundreds of people, including former Fijian Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama, protested in the capital. Initially, this event, posted on the Fiji Exposed Forum on Facebook, did not attract much attention. However, when China’s official media account "Trending in China" mentioned the incident, engagement on the forum tripled that day.

Following this, People’s Daily and China Global Television Network (CGTN Frontline) joined in spreading the information. Chinese diplomats Zhang Heqing in Pakistan and Zhang Meifang in Belfast both quoted the Fijian protesters’ slogan, "If it's safe, put it in Japan!" using identical text, hashtags, and videos in their tweets. Zhang Heqing’s tweet garnered over 1,700 likes.

Notably, some “civilian” accounts also spread highly similar content or interacted with official accounts on Twitter. About 80% of these accounts were created after 2021, with profiles often featuring phrases like "mutual follow" and images of the Chinese flag. These accounts typically post content about Chinese landscapes and cuisine, using keywords like "Good Products from Shandong" and "Along the Xiliao River." During certain periods, they share political content supporting China.

After thorough investigation, some accounts that posted "If it's safe, put it in Japan!" have been suspended by Twitter, indicating that these robot-like accounts exhibited abnormal behavior.

To alleviate concerns about food safety, Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida live streamed himself eating seafood from Fukushima. This act drew comparisons to a scene from the classic American cartoon "The Simpsons," where a character eats a three-eyed fish mutated by radiation. The image quickly became a meme, frequently appearing in Twitter comment sections. Former Global Times editor-in-chief Hu Xijin shared a clip from "The Simpsons" alongside a photo of the Japanese Prime Minister’s livestream on his Twitter account. His involvement helped the topic gain significant traction, with his tweet reaching 207,000 views. In comparison, a similar tweet from the second most popular account, Wall Street Apes, garnered just over 90,000 views.

Avoidance and Distrust of Everything

Krystal, who moved to Japan alone during high school and has lived in the Kanto region for seven years, initially read the Tokyo Electric Power Company’s report and didn’t see any cause for concern. "Relatives back home called me, asking if I’m returning to China." At the time, she thought their worries were exaggerated, especially since none of her Japanese classmates seemed to care about the issue.

After a month of receiving videos from her family on TikTok and WeChat about the dangers of Japan’s nuclear contaminated water, she began to feel uneasy. "I still trust scientific reports, but after seeing so much on WeChat, I started to feel like there might be something wrong with the water." As a result, she stopped buying products from Fukushima and switched from tap water to bottled water to avoid potential contamination. This avoidance brought her some psychological comfort: If she didn’t know the source, she didn’t have to investigate it. She even wished that products wouldn’t label their place of origin, so she could avoid the need to check altogether.

"I’m quite laid-back; others are much more cautious than I am." By "others," she meant Chinese students studying in Japan. Krystal opened her school’s WeChat group to find previous conversations about "spinach containing radiation," but instead came across a new discussion: "Where can I buy cheap eggs?" A student provided an answer, but the group quickly realized the eggs were a promotional product from Fukushima, and they all decided not to buy them.

These conversations no longer surprise Krystal. Tohoku University in Sendai, where Lu Xun — a well-known Chinese writer — once studied, used to be one of the most popular schools for Chinese applicants. However, starting from the year she began preparing for exams, she noticed a decline in interest: "Due to concerns about nuclear radiation from Fukushima affecting the food, water, and overall safety in the Sendai area, almost no Chinese students applied to Tohoku University." She also heard that "many Chinese students and professors left because of radiation concerns." Although a Tohoku University graduate mentioned they hadn’t observed this trend, the saying "no one comes, many leave" still circulates among Chinese students in Japan.

"What I know mostly comes from WeChat groups and Weibo," says Krystal, who, despite living outside China’s firewall, feels she hasn’t gained much more information. In fact, Japanese media haven’t provided much in-depth or ongoing coverage of the water discharge; her main sources of information are still domestic. When she tried to discuss it with locals, she found it wasn’t "polite" to bring up. "I don’t talk about Fukushima with Japanese people; it feels disrespectful."

In her professional role, Shelly is committed to ensuring that no risky content slips through the platform. But in her personal life, she holds a different view. "I do have some nationalistic feelings," Shelly admitted. "I genuinely don’t support or like Japan’s actions (regarding the nuclear wastewater discharge)." She attributes her negative attitude toward Japan to long-term, deeply rooted feelings: "My grandmother was almost raped by Japanese soldiers during the Chinese People's War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. She shaved her head and disguised herself as a man to escape." She has heard similar stories from others as well.

Years of working in risk management haven’t increased Shelly’s confidence in distinguishing information: "There are too many distractions in judging and transmitting information. The more I’ve been involved in these processes, the less I trust the news." Whether it’s social media posts or scientific reports, she instinctively doubts all information. "I might not even read the author’s viewpoints or evidence, but I just find myself not believing it."

She is also unsure whether to use "nuclear wastewater" or "nuclear contaminated water," but says, "Everyone has their own values. Not actively buying Japanese products, not arguing, and not supporting them ... that’s just my choice."

The more people remain silent, the harder it becomes for high-quality content to gain support, while irrational voices and content frequently attract attention, further intensifying online conflicts. In such an environment, Mr. Tian believes the key to effective science communication is how to engage with the audience: First, you need inner strength; second, you need a broad knowledge base "to connect with all the feelings of those who see you online." This not only means avoiding crossing red lines but also being prepared to avoid burnout when attacked. Li Jianmang hopes that some will understand his views and, "based on that understanding, take further action."

To this day, Xiaofei has not conducted any experiments. Instead, she avoids consuming any traceable Japanese food. "Like most Chinese people, I cherish my life." People once scrambled to buy salt in supermarkets out of fear of nuclear leaks, and she, too, "didn’t care about anything else, just focused on protecting my health."

"My desire to protect myself isn’t because of what anyone else has said," she emphasized. "It’s an instinct for survival."

This story collected social media data through Information Tracer.