When Did Water Desalination Begin in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries?

This investigation is the first part of the series The Cost of Freshwater in the Arabian Gulf, produced in partnership with the Pulitzer Center’s Ocean Reporting Network (ORN).

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The Beginning: 1907, Saudi Arabia

The inhabitants of the vast desert region nestled between a sea and a gulf faced a pressing challenge: an arid climate and scarce water resources. Finding a solution wasn’t a luxury—it was a necessity.

The answer lay in the sea's salty waters, transformed into drinkable water through submerged pipelines connected to desalination units. According to a 2014 report by the General Secretariat of the Gulf Cooperation Council, this transformative technology was first introduced to the region by a Dutch company. In the city of Jeddah, locals called it “Kindasa,” a colloquial twist on the English word “Condenser.”

These submerged pipelines produced approximately 135 cubic meters of desalinated water daily. However, in 1928, the system was replaced by another developed by a Scottish company. Abdulaziz Al Saud, the future founder of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, initiated this change just three years after his conquest of the Hijaz region. These efforts marked the foundational steps in localizing desalination technology across the water-scarce emirates and kingdoms of the Gulf.

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Over the course of the 20th century, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries steadily advanced their reliance on this groundbreaking desalination technology to meet their growing water needs. This effort was driven by the population boom resulting from rising birth rates and the influx of foreign workers drawn to the region by the economic boom following the discovery of oil.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Kuwait took the lead in adapting desalination technology, establishing the first modern plant utilizing Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF). Soon after, other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries followed suit. Bahrain and Oman launched their first plants in 1975, with the United Arab Emirates joining in 1977.

New desalination technologies have since continued to emerge. As of October 2023, 815 GCC countries' desalination plants rely on Arabian Gulf water. According to data we obtained from Global Water Intelligence (a company specialising in providing data related to the global water sector), these facilities comprise 1,668 seawater-fed desalination plants spread across the region.

An Enormous Capacity

Desalination plants in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have a capacity of 67 million cubic meters per day, representing 45% of the total global capacity of seawater-based desalination plants across 187 countries. Meanwhile, desalination plants in the GCC that rely on water from the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea account for 31% of the world’s desalination capacity.

The Arabian/Persian Gulf, shared by the GCC states and Iraq on one side and Iran on the other, is a semi-enclosed sea connected to the Arabian Sea via the Strait of Hormuz. This narrow and strategic waterway forms the only link between the Gulf and the open waters of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. This geographic connection has facilitated the exchange of water, marine life, and other resources between the Gulf and the Arabian Sea.

Desalination plants, introduced to address water scarcity and human thirst, have had a severe environmental impact on marine life in the Gulf. These plants increase the salinity of their waters by discharging brine—a byproduct of the desalination process—into the Gulf, and they have also contributed to rising water temperatures in the region.

“It is evident to everyone that the Arabian Gulf hosts an enormous amount of desalinated water, which undoubtedly has environmental consequences, both now and in the future,” asserts Dr. Will Le Quesne, Principal Marine Environmental Scientist at the Centre for Environment, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS)—the UK government’s marine science advisory agency. Dr. Le Quesne, who spent seven years in the Arabian Gulf reviewing the environmental impact of desalination plants on the Arabian Sea, has published several scientific papers and studies on desalinated water, as he explained in his interview with Muwatin.

Dr. Will Le Quesne illustrates the gravity of the issue by comparing the amount of desalinated water produced daily in 2018 to Olympic swimming pools. He explains that the daily volume of desalinated water could fill 8,200 Olympic-sized swimming pools. “If these pools were lined up in a single row, they would form a swimming pool 410 kilometers long—half the distance between Kuwait and Abu Dhabi,” he adds.

Le Quesne then expands on this example, noting, “The volume of water processed by desalination plants is three times the amount extracted as freshwater. These plants withdraw seawater, extract the freshwater, and discharge the brine back into the sea. Therefore, the volume of water processed daily in 2018 would suffice to create a line of swimming pools stretching from Kuwait to Abu Dhabi and halfway back.”

Five years after Le Quesne’s analysis, by October 2023, data from the Global Water Intelligence (GWI) database—which includes operational, decommissioned, and planned plants—reveal that the total desalination capacity in GCC countries drawing water from the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea has nearly doubled. The capacity now stands at approximately 46 million cubic meters per day, equivalent to 14,832 Olympic-sized swimming pools.

According to the Global Water Intelligence (GWI) database, half is allocated for drinking purposes. Over a third (37%) is used for industrial purposes, while the remaining portion is distributed between irrigation and tourism.

The Brine Discharge

The operation of desalination plants varies depending on the technology used; some rely on high temperatures, while others utilize membranes. However, desalination plants fundamentally work by removing salt and impurities from seawater to produce freshwater suitable for drinking. The process involves several key stages, including pumping seawater into the plant, filtering it to remove larger particles, and forcing the filtered seawater through semi-permeable membranes under high pressure. These membranes contain tiny pores that allow water molecules to pass through while retaining salt. The treated water is then purified and filtered again to meet drinking water standards. Finally, the remaining saline water, known as brine or saline reject, is discharged back into the sea. This brine discharge is the primary environmental concern associated with desalination plants, leading to increased salinity in the marine environment.

According to Dr. Mohamed Daoud, a water resources consultant at the Environment Agency in Abu Dhabi, the salinity concentration in brine discharged from desalination plants ranges between 50 and 75 milligrams per liter, and it is much denser than seawater. This causes the brine to settle at the seabed near the discharge outlet, creating a highly saline layer of water. This layer negatively impacts the environment and marine life, particularly in areas with low water circulation, slow currents, or shallow depths.

In his interview with Muwatin, Dr. Daoud also explained that the temperature of the discharged brine is elevated, typically up to five degrees Celsius higher than the surrounding seawater. This increase raises the temperature of the coastal water, reduces oxygen levels, and can lead to the formation of “dead zones”—areas devoid of biological activity. The brine is also more toxic due to the chemicals used in the desalination process.

Detailed data on the volume of brine produced by desalination plants is lacking, and scientific studies vary in their estimates of the volume discharged into the Arabian Gulf. A 2020 paper published in Environmental Research Communications notes that the largest 24 desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf in 2017, producing approximately 11 million cubic meters of freshwater daily, discharged about 275,000 cubic meters of salt into the Gulf daily. Over a five-year period, this could increase the basin-wide salinity by about 0.2 psi. However, another study published in April 2018 estimates that for every cubic meter of freshwater produced in GCC countries, two cubic meters of brine are discharged into the Gulf.

Dr. Daoud highlights that the brine discharge volume also depends on the plant’s production capacity and used technology.

The technologies employed in desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf vary, but the majority—around 60%—use reverse osmosis. This is followed by multi-stage flash distillation plants at 22% and multi-effect distillation plants at 17%, according to the GWI database.

Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Multi-Stage Flash (MSF)

Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)

The brine volume also depends on the recovery rate, with higher recovery rates producing less brine. For instance, Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) distillation plants typically have recovery rates ranging from 35% to 45%, while reverse osmosis plants can achieve up to 90% recovery rates.

The brine volume also depends on the recovery rate, with higher recovery rates producing less brine. For instance, Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) distillation plants typically have recovery rates ranging from 35% to 45%, while reverse osmosis plants can achieve up to 90% recovery rates.

Dr. Daoud emphasizes that brine discharge from thermal desalination methods, including cooling water, amounts to approximately seven cubic meters for every cubic meter of desalinated water produced. In contrast, membrane-based methods significantly reduce this volume to one cubic meter of brine for each cubic meter of desalinated water.

Dr. Daoud states, “The salinity caused by brine is not the only issue.” He considers the larger crisis to be the presence of chemical additives in the discharged water, which harm marine life. These toxic chemicals prevent scaling on boiler walls or manage foam formation when saline water enters the desalination plants.

Dr. Le Quesne agrees, stating, “We don’t fully know which chemicals are used in desalination plants. Each plant might use slightly different types.” However, during his research, Le Quesne and his team found reports indicating that anti-scalants are added at concentrations of no more than two milligrams per liter.

Le Quesne adds, “Some studies have shown that anti-scalants can affect coral reefs and may be toxic.” He hypothesizes that if anti-scalants are added at a rate of no more than two milligrams per liter of water processed by desalination plants, and this rate is multiplied by the volume of desalinated water, it can be estimated that around 13 million kilograms of anti-scalants are discharged into the coastal waters of the Gulf annually—equivalent to 500 large trucks worth of anti-scalants dumped into the Gulf’s coastal waters each year.

Muwatin could not identify the specific types of anti-scalants used, but according to the GWI database, three companies supply chemical feed systems to 17 desalination plants in GCC countries. Among them are Statiflo International Ltd, a private limited company based in the United Kingdom, and BASF (Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik), a European multinational and the world’s largest chemical producer, which supplies chemical feed systems.

The brine discharged from desalination plants also contains heavy metals such as copper, iron, aluminum, and nickel. In a research article published in Springer Nature, the researcher analyzed samples taken 1,500 meters away from the Al-Khobar desalination plant—one of the oldest and largest reverse osmosis desalination facilities in eastern Saudi Arabia. The study found that heavy metal concentrations in the sediments were 10 to 100 times higher than the limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The researcher concluded that these elevated levels were linked to the liquid waste discharges from the desalination plant.

The recovery rate in desalination plants is a critical performance metric that indicates the efficiency of the water purification process. It is defined as the percentage of the total volume of feedwater introduced into the system converted into usable freshwater.

Anti-scalants increase the solubility of sparingly soluble salts and are more commonly used in reverse osmosis plants to enhance water permeability.

Companies supplying Chemical Feed Systems to Gulf Desalination Plants

• Project Name: Al FujairaMED
  United Arab Emirates
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Al Ghalilah
  United Arab Emirates
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Al Jubail
  Saudi Arabia
  BASF / Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Ras Laffan C
  Qatar
  BASF
• Project Name: Ad Dur IWPP
  Bahrain
  Statiflo International Ltd. / Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Ras Abu Fontas A1 Extension
  Qatar
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Maaden Phosphate
  Saudi Arabia
  BASF
• Project Name: Palm Jebel Ali (including Madinat Al Arab)
  United Arab Emirates
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Al Ghubrah IWP
  Oman
  BASF / Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Al Fujairah 1 SWRO expansion
  United Arab Emirates
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Al Hidd 3
  Bahrain
  BASF
• Project Name: Sohar Industrial Port
  Oman
  Asahi Kasei Corporation
• Project Name: Al Fujairah 2 (MED)
  United Arab Emirates
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Al Fujairah 1 (MSF)
  United Arab Emirates
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Doha East redevelopment
  Kuwait
  Statiflo International Ltd.
• Project Name: Sohar Industrial Port SWRO
  Oman
  Asahi Kasei Corporation
• Project Name: Barka 2 SWRO
  Oman
  Statiflo International Ltd.

The brine discharged from desalination plants also contains heavy metals such as copper, iron, aluminum, and nickel. In a research article published in Springer Nature, the researcher analyzed samples taken 1,500 meters away from the Al-Khobar desalination plant—one of the oldest and largest reverse osmosis desalination facilities in eastern Saudi Arabia. The study found that heavy metal concentrations in the sediments were 10 to 100 times higher than the limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The researcher concluded that these elevated levels were linked to the liquid waste discharges from the desalination plant.

Dead Zones

According to Dr. Le Quesne, the interaction of brine with high temperatures and chemicals has a powerful and destructive impact on marine life. It also negatively affects fisheries and biodiversity, with repercussions on tourism by damaging certain coastal habitats, which could accelerate coastal erosion.

Le Quesne further highlights another issue: desalination plants often draw in seawater, which can unintentionally capture marine organisms, such as fish larvae, plankton, and other small marine life forms. This can disrupt the local marine biodiversity.

Meanwhile, Hamed Ibrahim, a researcher in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), who has studied desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf for a decade, confirms to Muwatin that brine discharge leads to the proliferation of harmful algal blooms (HABs). These blooms produce toxins that can harm marine life and humans. He adds, “These algae cause fish deaths, deplete oxygen, and release harmful toxins into the water.”

In his 2020 study published in the Journal of Environmental Engineering, Ibrahim found that the southern Gulf area near the Strait of Hormuz experienced a shift in toxic algal growth between 1980 and 2015. His study links the rapid expansion of desalination in the Gulf since the late 1980s to the observed increase in the growth rate and quantity of toxic algae in the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

Ibrahim also points out the harm these toxic algal blooms cause to desalination plants. They clog filters and damage equipment, increasing the costs of pre-treating seawater and hindering freshwater production. His study further highlights that several desalination plants in the Gulf were shut down due to toxic algal blooms in 2008 and 2009.

Winners and Losers

Most researchers who spoke to Muwatin agree that the environmental crisis caused by desalination plants is not limited to a specific country, but rather a regional issue shared to varying degrees among the six GCC states. Its impact is unevenly distributed across the region, depending on geographical factors.

Professor Anton Purnama from Sultan Qaboos University in Oman explained to Muwatin that the environmental impact depends largely on the depth of the sea and the circulation of water in the Arabian Gulf. He added, “It’s unfair that the biggest polluters—Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates—don’t experience the same environmental consequences as countries like Bahrain, Qatar, and Kuwait, where Gulf waters are shallower.”

According to the GWI database, the United Arab Emirates has the largest desalination capacity in the Arabian Gulf region, accounting for 36% of the total capacity of GCC desalination plants. It is followed by Saudi Arabia at 29%, Kuwait at 13%, Qatar at 10%, Oman at 8%, and Bahrain at 4%.

Interactive Infographic: UAE and Saudi Arabia Lead the Gulf in Desalination Dominance

Ibrahim’s study highlights that the southwestern region of the Arabian Gulf is the most affected by salinity levels caused by brine discharge. To measure these levels, the researchers developed a high-resolution coupled model to simulate the dynamic interaction between brine discharge and its circulation in the Gulf. The model incorporates atmospheric and oceanic components to provide a detailed analysis of the Gulf’s conditions.

The study examined salinity and temperature data from 1981 to 1990, with relatively few desalination plants. Using this data, the model simulated scenarios, including one without brine discharge, one involving discharge from the 24 largest desalination plants in the Gulf, and another where brine discharge was limited to 14 major plants outside the southwestern Gulf.

The model ran for ten years, and the results revealed that brine discharge raises salinity levels by 1.6 grams per kilogram. Salt accumulation is particularly severe in the southwestern region of the Gulf, near the Arabian coastline.

Ibrahim likens the Arabian Gulf to a swimming pool in the middle of an extremely hot desert, where the evaporation rate is exceptionally high. The average annual evaporation rate is approximately 1.8 cubic meters per year, contributing to the increased salinity caused by excessive evaporation of the freshwater entering the Gulf via the Shatt al-Arab from Iraq, leaving behind salts and minerals.

The Big Players

Desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf are owned and operated by various entities, including government agencies, private companies, and public-private partnerships.

According to the GWI database, around 81% of desalination plants in the Gulf operate under the EPC (Engineering, Procurement, and Construction) model. In this system, a single contractor is responsible for all engineering, procurement, and construction activities, while the public sector retains ownership and operation of the facility. Approximately 4% of plants operate under the BOO (Build-Own-Operate) model, where private entities finance, construct, own, and operate the facility for a specified period, with no public sector ownership. Another 4% operate under the IWP (Independent Water Producer) model, where private entities build and operate water treatment or desalination facilities and sell the water to public utilities under long-term purchase agreements.

Infographic: The engineering, procurement and construction system controls 81% of desalination plants

According to the GWI database, there are 518 owners of desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf, out of a total of 815 plants. Among them, the Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (now the Department of Energy) owns approximately 38 plants, Kuwait’s Ministry of Electricity and Water owns 29 plants, Saudi Arabia’s Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) owns 28 plants, Oman’s Ministry of Energy and Water owns 24 plants, the Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority (SEWA) owns 22 plants, Saudi Aramco owns 21 plants, the Federal Electricity and Water Authority (FEWA) owns around 20 plants, and the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) owns 19 plants. Ownership details for nearly 300 plants are not documented in the database.

The database also indicates that 36 desalination plants out of 815 are currently under construction. Additionally, 29 plants are listed as decommissioned, 26 are permanently closed, and 144 are assumed to have ceased operations, although GWI has not confirmed their status.

National or private oil companies also own 64 desalination plants. Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) owns seven plants, the Arabian Oil Company owns six desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf, and the Kuwait Oil Company owns five.

Oil powers the majority of desalination plants in GCC countries. According to earlier reports, Saudi Arabia uses approximately 300,000 barrels of oil daily for desalination.

On the possibility of using renewable energy for desalination, Dr. Jawad Al-Kharraz, Executive Director of the Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) and former Research Director at the Middle East Desalination Research Center in Oman, tells Muwatin: “There is a push to transition to solar energy for water desalination. However, the challenge lies in the massive size of some plants, which require vast areas to generate the solar power needed for their operation.”

Will it stop?

According to our experts, GCC governments don’t intend to halt the construction of new desalination plants. On the contrary, the region aims to reach a total desalination capacity of 80 million cubic meters per day by 2050.

Le Quesne comments, “As new plants are built, contributing to environmental pollution, there is also ongoing and intensifying climate change, with temperatures rising dramatically. We can expect compounded impacts on coral reefs, fish populations, and marine life in general.”

A study published in the journal Marine Pollution Bulletin predicts that salinity and temperature levels in the Arabian Gulf will rise significantly by 2050. It forecasts that temperatures in three-quarters of Gulf habitats with depths of less than 20 meters will increase by more than 2°C (3.6°F).

“The impact of desalination plants is silent, but if given another decade, it will explode,” warns Lionel Rabin, founder and CEO of HALTIQA, a company dedicated to sustainable desalinated water solutions. From a coastal village in France, Rabin tells Muwatin: “Fish will disappear from smaller areas because high salinity levels will push some species to migrate. Along with them, fishermen will leave their traditional livelihoods, forcing them to reinvent themselves in other jobs to support their families.”